Pathogoras' Fragments and Hermeneutics Coursework

Pathogoras' Fragments and Hermeneutics - Coursework Example      The two specific interpretations that Protogoras provides in his work titled â€Å"Fragments† center around two major concepts. First, is the issue of relativism, wherein man is viewed as the measure of all things. The question of ethics and what is good and what is not is determined according to man’s standards. One of the central issues in Protogoras is the question of whether virtue can be taught at all and whether citizens can be educated to a point where they become good citizens. Another central theme of the book is that possessing a virtue is equivalent to the possession of knowledge; whereas doing evil is merely an expression of ignorance in a person.   The idea that men who choose to do what is pleasurable to them may be venturing into evil deeds and not have the self-control to remain virtuous, is contested by Protogoras, who states that the very act of doing something pleasurable equates to being virtuous. In other words, he equates doing good to d oing what one finds pleasurable. Protogoras states that the process of learning is centered around the acquisition of knowledge, i.e, learning to be virtuous means in effect, learning a specific science or kind of knowledge.  Ã‚     The two specific interpretations that Protogoras provides in his work titled â€Å"Fragments† center around two major concepts. First, is the issue of relativism, wherein man is viewed as the measure of all things. The question of ethics and what is good and what is not is determined according to man’s standards. One of the central issues in Protogoras is the question of whether virtue can be taught at all and whether citizens can be educated to a point where they become good citizens. Another central theme of the book is that possessing a virtue is equivalent to the possession of knowledge; whereas doing evil is merely an expression of ignorance in a person.   The idea that men who choose to do what is pleasurable to them may be vent uring into evil deeds and not have the self-control to remain virtuous, is contested by Protogoras, who states that the very act of doing something pleasurable equates to being virtuous. In other words, he equates doing good to doing what one finds pleasurable. Protogoras states that the process of learning is centered around the acquisition of knowledge, i.e, learning to be virtuous means in effect, learning a specific science or kind of knowledge.   Plato was the one who formulated the term â€Å"rhetoric†, because before his views were propagated, verbal art was not well understood and the general understanding was that verbal art and dialogue was more holistic. But Pluto has highlighted how it is actually differentiated. the major issue that Plato has expounded is to clarify and establish a clear difference between rhetoric and philosophy. There are differences in the teaching about logos; one is the goal of seeking success and the other is the goal of seeking the truth – the former is rhetoric and the latter is philosophy.3.     A linguistic element may be both vocal and psychological in nature. There is an internal concept associated with each linguistic unit, which may exist in the mind and its understanding of the linguistic element. The other is the external sound-image, which is the spoken word. Linguistic elements are the foundation of language and because the process of formulation of language is such a complex one, it is not one that easily lends itself to changes. Moreover, it forms a common link between various generations; it forms the means by which linguistic signs can be used to depict reality.  

Leadership Issues of Different Not for Profit Organizations Research Paper

Leadership Issues of Different Not for Profit Organizations - Research Paper Example INTRODUCTION: Ongoing changes and advancements in the overall scenario of the world have placed additional importance on the role of the leader in any organization. Leader is a person who directs and guides a certain group of people for the achievement of a particular objective or aim (Fleishman, 1953). Leaders are associated with the tasks of not only managing the people but they have to perform their own tasks and become an inspiration for others. Leadership has evolved as one of the most studied and researched areas. The concept of leadership has been closely associated with the ideas of organizational structure, organizational culture, employee motivation, employee productivity, and overall performance of the organization (Judge, Bono, Ilies, & Gerhardt, 2002). There are different styles of leadership which are based on several factors. These various styles of leadership have certain implications on the output generated by the organizations. Despite of the considerable research work in the area of leadership, researchers have been ignoring the importance and other implications of leadership in the nonprofit sector. Young Entrepreneurs Association of Laos (YEAL) has been established with the aim of promoting youth entrepreneurship in the country and supporting different young entrepreneurs. This Not for Profit association facilitates the growth of new business ventures on part of youth. This not only helps the young entrepreneurs but also improves the status of overall economy.

Work-related stress amongst employees

Work-related stress amongst employees In the main, business managers are failing to deal with the problem of work-related stress amongst employees. Work-related stress is a common problem of modern lifestyle which has spread all over the world and touched almost all vocations (Life, nd, p.1). Job stress is a chronic disease caused by condition in the workplace that negatively affects an individuals performance and/or overall well-being of his body and mind (Life, nd, p.1). Sources of work-related stress include high demand of performance, family pressure, poor interpersonal relationships and career concerns. The consequence of the stress will lead to less self-confidence, worse performance and even suicide. As the stress which detrimental to peoples health has become more and more severely, how to cope with the situation is attracting increasing peoples attention. This essay focuses on problems of athletes stress and submits some solutions to the problems for sports managers. The natures of the stress can be split into two parts: physical symptoms and behavioral symptoms (speaking book, 2008). The physical symptoms include: tiredness, nausea, headaches, muscle tension, nervous twitches and altered sleep patterns. Aggression, anxiety, poor decision-making, inability to prioritize, mood changes, difficulty in concentrating, feelings of failure and isolation are belonging to behavioral symptoms (speaking book, 2008, p.95). All of these symptoms can reflect the athletes work-related stress. The causes of the athletes job stress are intricate and complex. They can be mostly divided into 4 parts-environmental issues, personal issues, leadership issues and team issues respectively. Firstly, environmental issues, which include selection, finance, and training environment, is a factor that contributes to the stress (Tim Lew, 2001). Selection is consisted of late selection, a lengthy selection process and unfair selection system. Some athletes illustrate that they feel nervous and tense if they do not know whether they will be chosen for competition. They fear that they will not have enough time to prepare the competition which lead to the stress. And some unfair selection also causes the stress of athletes as they can not obtain the chance of equal competition (Tim Lew, 2001). Finances play an important role in stress. It includes not having enough funding money and differential financial support. Athletes spend most of time on training so that they do not have extra time for earning money. Therefore, they have to obtain the funding from sport organization, sponsorship or family. If the financial support is not enough or is poorly managed, athletes will feel depressive and anxiety (Tim Lew, 2001). Training environment may be being able to lead to the athletes stress if athletes exist in the two opposite environments at the same time. The incompatible environment will make athletes feel uncomfortable. The second part which is the most important one is personal issues. Personal issues contain nutrition, career concern, interpersonal relationship, injury and external distractions (Tom, et al 2000; Tim Lew, 2001). Poor provision of food and disorder eating habit will lead to innutrition or obesity which will influence the athletes performance (Tim Lew, 2001). A female athlete says that diet is her worst puzzle, which will lead to stress (Tim Lew, 2001). A study shows that external distractions (23%) and career concern (19%) are the two major causes for stress (Pensgaard, 1998). Roberston Cooper(1983) believe that career stagnation, high expectation from other people and unrealistic goals, which are the main components of career concern, may give rise to stress if athletes fail to achieve the expectation and goals (Tom, et al 2000). At the same time, external influence also brings stress to athletes. The press, media, spectators and family make athletes distract from their work wh ich consequently influence their performance (Pensgaard, 1998). For example, David Beckham, who is a talented football player, fell out with his coach because the coach thought that David paid more attention on entertainment area than on training. Such action had impeded his development of football skill. At that time, David also had to face a big stress from his wife, who was his manager for planning the commercial activities. Poor interpersonal relationships in a team are another factor of stress. There are three important sets of relationships-relationships with sports managers, with coaches and with teammates. Low interpersonal support from sports managers, coaches and teammates will be linked with high anxiety, tension and low performance satisfaction which increase the risk of obtaining pressure (Tom, et al 2000). In addition, injury, which is the worst thing for athletes, often results in pressure. Most of the athletes who get hurt will worry about their career as they fear that they can not get opportunities to go to the competition or they will lag behind because of less training (Tim Lew, 2001). The third part of the cause is leadership issues which focus on the aspect of coach. Coachs differential treatment of athletes, overbearing coach, coach very demanding and coach-athlete tension are the reasons of athletes pressure (Tim Lew, 2001). Coachs attitude influences athletes deeply because he plays a vital role in a team and has the right to decide which athlete will be chosen for competition. Most of athletes fear that they will be ignored by their coach and some athletes feel stress as they can not bear the workload (Tim Lew, 2001). Moreover, coaching style is another cause of athletes stress. Some athletes can not adapt to different coaching styles which may deter their development. The poor performance of an athlete results in a rise of the pressure (Tim Lew, 2001). Team issues, as the last part of the cause, can not be ignored. It main includes: team atmosphere, communication and support (Tim Lew, 2001).Team atmosphere is a main issue which relates to the tension between the athletes. A new team member, injured athletes and separate groups within team may lead to the poor team atmospheres which engender a tense situation in the team. The supports from teammates, coaches and sports managers are the mental underpinning of athletes which make them get rid of the negative mood. Without support, athletes may feel helpless and even stress (Tim Lew, 2001). Persistent stress may result in long term consequences which may alter the way the athletes feel, thinks and behaves, and may also change their physiological function (Stansfeld et al, 1999; SanterMurphy, 1995; Cincirpini et al, 1984; Stainbrak Green, 1983, cited in Tom, et al 2000). Effects of athletes stress may work on individuals and teams respectively. For individuals, effects of stress may include: sleep disturbances, headaches, gastrointestinal upset, cardiovascular disease, anxiety and depression, labile emotions, less of concentration, lack of motivation, substance misuse and poor performance (University of Cambridge, 2008). While for team, consequences of stress may mean low morale, increased athletes complaints, increased accidents, high absenteeism and poor performance which will influence the development of the team (University of Cambridge, 2008). Because of the high dangers of the athletes stress, how to tackle the problem has become the focus of sports managers. There are some solutions can be used to help sports managers cope with the stress of athletes. First of all, sports managers have to take responsibility for athletes diets and ensure athletes maintain good nutrition (Dean, 2007). Secondly, sports managers should prevent athletes from working overload. Therefore, they should give athletes manageable training schedule so that they will not feel too tired. Keep good relationship with athletes and manage the relationship between athletes are both important for sports managers. The supports from teammates, coaches and sports managers are the mental underpinning of athletes which can help them release from stress (Tim Lew, 2001). To athletes, stress is a persistent problem which often influences their performance and life. Although sports managers are trying to deal with the situation and some of them have been taken some solutions, athletes continue to be affected by stress problem (Pensgaard, 1998). The solution taken by sports managers, such as effective time management, health diet and keeping good relationship, are useful at the certain extent. However, some accidents which can not be predicted by sports managers would also result the stress. So, while deal with the existing stress is important, detecting the possible sources of stress for athletes may be is a more effective way to avoid the happening of pressure (Pensgaard, 1998). Bibliography Pensgaard AM, Ursin H. (1998). Stress, control, and coping in elite athletes in Scand J Med Sci Sports Journal Vol. 8 pp183-189 Tim, W. Lew. H. (2001). A case study of Organizational Stress in Elite Sportin APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY Journal Vol. 13 pp207-238 Tom. C et al. (2000) Research on Work-related Stress. Bilbao: European Agency for Safety and Health at work (see Epi) Life. Stress at work. Joan, M. Sebastian W. (2008) English for Academic Study: Speaking. England: Garnet Publishing Ltd Human Resources Division of Cambridge University. (2008) Effects of Work-Related Stress http://www.admin.cam.ac.uk/offices/hr/policy/stress/effects.html> [Accessed on 27/5/2008] Dean H. (2007) Stress and the Athlete http://coachdeanhebert.wordpress.com/2007/12/16/stress-and-the-athlete/> [Access on 16/12/2007]

Sumner - Brooks Incident :: essays research papers

Preston Brooks was born in Edgefield District, South Carolina on August 5th, 1819. He graduated from South Carolina College (now known as the University of South Carolina), in 1839, and after he graduated he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1845. Brooks also served in the Mexican-American War with the Palmetto Regiment. After he had returned from the war, Brooks fought a duel with future Texas Senator Louis T. Wigfall. In the duel, Brooks was shot in the hip, forcing him to use a walking cane for the rest of his life. In 1853, Brooks was elected to the 33rd Congress as a member of the Democratic Party. While in office, Brooks had met an anti-slavery campaigning Senator named Charles Sumner. Charles Sumner was born in Boston, Massachusetts, and graduated from Harvard law school in 1830. He edited a law review, the American Jurist, and served as a reporter for the United States Circuit Court. Sumner also lectured on constitutional and international law at Harvard ’s law school for three winter terms. Sumner first became a politician in 1845, while the Mexican-American War was in dispute. In an Independence Day speech before city officials in Boston, Sumner denounced the use of war for settling international disputes and promoted arbitration instead. He also opposed the annexation of Texas and criticized the institution of slavery. From these speeches, Sumner was known as a keen and favored public speaker. In 1848, Sumner abandoned the Whig party in support of Martin Van Buren’s unsucc essful Free-Soil campaign for presidency. In 1851, a Democratic-Free-Soil coalition in the Massachusetts legislature chose Sumner to fill the U.S. Senate seat of Daniel Webster, who had resigned to become Secretary of State. While Sumner was in the Senate, he became a leader of the anti-slavery-forces. During the debates on slavery in Kansas in May 1856, Sumner delivered a two-day oration called "The Crime against Kansas", that brutally defamed Southern expansion of slavery. When Sumner gave this speech, Congressman Preston Brooks of South Carolina believed that Sumner had insulted his uncle, Senator Andrew Butler. Brooks backfired and used his cane to beat Sumner, who was seated at his desk on the Senate floor, until he was unconscious. Sumner, bleeding profusely, had to be carried out of the room. Sumner’s injuries from the beating kept him out of office for three years. The severe beating on the Senate floor helped escalate the tensions that led to the Civil War and became a huge symbol for both the North and South.

Education, Teaching and Curriculum Essay

Education has always been an important aspect in the course of personal and societal development as a whole. Every individual has an urge and personal willingness to learn valuable information that varies from either practical knowledge o scientific ones. However, all of these relevant informations are very much needed by every individual to be able to develop their own self and become self-sufficient and productive members of the society. Education has many methodologies from which one individual can attain it in a scientifically formulated pattern. This is actually the main pattern accepted and utilized by all educational institution in their formal learning process and even implemented by those who implement informal ones. Gradual and progressive pattern is the most effective and easiest way used in learning process because it mainly accommodates normal brain development and innate learning abilities of the person. In this learning process, the main methodology commonly used in the per curriculum basis encompassing teaching instructions for learning individuals. Curriculum is literally defined in education as a set of courses regarding different classes or subjects offered in different educational institutions such as a school or a university. Embedded in its process are different specific classes for minor and major aspects that are all conjoined in adherence to the course objective of the entire curriculum. This is actually formulated and expressed in terms of its learning outcomes and for the development of the students taking up the said curriculum. Curriculums in general, whatever its subject or class is, are all created to envelope the learning process of individuals learning their specific course to develop and acquire valuable and relevant skills in that specific field. The main learning approach commonly used in the curriculum teaching is based on a set of instruction, which are all directed to guide the students in the gradually process of learning in the curriculum. Instructions are a basic aspect of the learning process. They are all formulated to guide students in their gradual learning process in their respective fields. In educational curriculum, instructions serve as a form of communicated information that has a command and explanation nature. Thus, instructions are descriptive explanations for how an action, behavior, method, or task is to be begun, completed, conducted, or executed. Because of their significant relevance to the learning process of individuals, instructions are explicitly used in the approach system and learning process in a curriculum. Learning instructions are generally formulated and given to students to guide them in discovering and thus learning the different specific informations and processes that are significant in the execution and completion of their respective subjects that are enveloped in their curriculum. With consideration of the definition and significant or the two main aspects in the learning process, curriculum and instruction have a direct relationship with each other. In the education aspect, curriculums are generally composed of specific set of instructions in specific subjects based on its respective course. Instruction are formulated and applied by the educational institutions to guide and educate explain to their students the knowledge and information in the different subjects encompassed in the gradual learning process of their different curriculums in every courses or fields. Thus, curriculum and instructions go side-by-side in systematically developing and directing the educational system to better address the normal mental development and innate learning process of the students thus encouraging more productive and efficient learning approach for the society. In terms of the higher level of educational set up, the curriculums offered as well as the regulations are diversely changed to apply to the demands required for the learners. Obviously, the requirements of concentration and focus from the students are heightened. However, this does not add the directly instructional as compared to that of the lower levels of learning. Obviously, this is primarily because of the fact that the students in this level are already matured enough to be still instructed on what they are supposed to do. The students are rather expected to place higher concentration and intend to pursue in a better level of focus on the proper learning attitude needed for them to survive this particular stage of learning. The instance of being able to survive the scholastic challenges presented by the higher and more demanding environment of education is a primary achievement among those who are concentrating to attain the best out of their learning in this level of educational state. Most of the time, the students are known to be pressured in this set up, but all these procedures are strongly applied to actually help in the process of making the students see the real implications of their lessons in actual life.

The Dead Child

Significant Lines1. â€Å"Why, oh why, did the memory of that dead child seek me out today in the very midst of the summer that sang?†2. â€Å"I glanced again at that astonishing splash of pink in the melancholy landscape.†3. â€Å"I studied the silent little face. A child who had loved books, solemnity, and decorous attire.†4. â€Å"I realized suddenly that it was a mass of wild roses. In June they open in great sheets all over Manitoba, growing from the poorest soil.†5. â€Å"A scent I have not much liked since the long ago June when I went to that poorest of villages-to acquire, as they say, experience.† Insightful Comments6. Each flower/rose holds a precious memory.7. Life is full of harsh moments. However the simple, yet precious things in life make up for the murky moments.8. The flowers signify the hope, found in a place surrounded by darkness. ( The light at the end of the tunnel)9. The value of a child’s memory is worth more than all the riches in the world.10. Yolande, a rose grown from the poorest soil. A brilliant, pure, and innocent rose. The theme of â€Å"The Dead Child† by Gabrielle Roy is about how a simple action can have a massive impact on our surroundings. In other words never underestimate the power of a simple action. In the story we are introduced to a group of Mà ©tis students, who are under privileged and are taught in poor working environments. Already we can see that these students do not have very much – money wise-. Despite their lack of necessities they were still able to give the gift of kindness, respect and love to their close friend Yolande.Their simple act of kindness not only changed their perspective on death but it also opened their hearts and allowed them to connect with their teacher throughout their moments of grief. By simply visiting Yolande before her burial helped the students cope with their misery and lift all the emotional weights from their tiny shoulders. Not only did they show others that Yolande was not alone but they also proved to themselves that they were strong enough to understand death. As they are picking the flowers they are reminded of the hope among them and that everything will be okay. I think the reason why this theme was used in the story is to allow readers to take the time to think about their actions and how it can affect themselves and their surroundings no matter how diminutive  the action may be- like many people say actions always speak louder than words.The face in my image is Yolande. The ribbons of colors caressing Yolande’s face represent all the feelings that were present throughout the story. Blue symbolizing sadness, white symbolizing purity, yellow symbolizes the imperfections in life and pink represents hope. The black background is the soil in which the roses grow out of and the same soil that will hold Yolande’s body where she too will become a rose. The large stream of rose petals r epresents the innocent and simple actions of the children. If you picture a stream they are usually calm and quiet but if you look closer streams are also abundant filled with life just like the students in the story.The tiny bits of roses represent all the memories the children had with Yolande; each rose petal builds a larger rose. At the end of the story the children form a circle around Yolande and console themselves by telling one another â€Å"She must have got to heaven by this time.† Or â€Å"She must be happy now.† For a child to experience such a mature feeling is not only incredible but at the same time fascinating, and so all of these emotions have engraved their names onto the rose signifying an important moment in their lives, the moment when they learnt how to cope with grief and death.As a result of their simple acts of kindness each child’s memory, feelings and actions make them a beautiful rose. All these relate back to the theme because they i llustrate all the wondrous things the children and the teacher were able to experience and achieve through a simple action despite all the emotional, and mental struggles each character went through.

Free Essays on Expectations and Society

Expectations and Society The question of the matter is whether you should do something or not because you’re expected to. Whereas its really a question of how you view our society. Take, for instance, the boy who sees these big guys going off to war carrying big weapons. He’s probably going to dream about being in the army. Then some day when he gets old enough he’s going to go off to war and get killed because society gleams on the fact that if you go to war your going to be a hero. Now if you say went to Vietnam, people just where disgusted at you because of the mindless slaughter. Where the fact is that none of the people rally wanted to get dragged into the war in the first place. Another example is tipping; you should tip if the waiter or waitress is a good server. Except for that most people just tip because society deems it right. Then there are the people that are saying â€Å"well its figured into there pay.† What about the McDonalds workers getting dirt pay. What about them. What society is saying is that tip these people but don’t tip this person. Who is society to say who should get tipped and who shouldn’t? Look at it this way, all men are created equal right? Well what about those who are in the same line of work and don’t even get the benefit of tips. That doesn’t sound very equal to me. A movie states this clearer than I probably could. This movie name is â€Å"Reservoir Dogs.† Rent it some time and you will see what I mean. Steve Buscemi renders this point. (From â€Å"Fargo†, â€Å"Con Air†, â€Å"Big Daddy†, and many others.) There you have my view on who decides what we should or shouldn’t do.... Free Essays on Expectations and Society Free Essays on Expectations and Society Expectations and Society The question of the matter is whether you should do something or not because you’re expected to. Whereas its really a question of how you view our society. Take, for instance, the boy who sees these big guys going off to war carrying big weapons. He’s probably going to dream about being in the army. Then some day when he gets old enough he’s going to go off to war and get killed because society gleams on the fact that if you go to war your going to be a hero. Now if you say went to Vietnam, people just where disgusted at you because of the mindless slaughter. Where the fact is that none of the people rally wanted to get dragged into the war in the first place. Another example is tipping; you should tip if the waiter or waitress is a good server. Except for that most people just tip because society deems it right. Then there are the people that are saying â€Å"well its figured into there pay.† What about the McDonalds workers getting dirt pay. What about them. What society is saying is that tip these people but don’t tip this person. Who is society to say who should get tipped and who shouldn’t? Look at it this way, all men are created equal right? Well what about those who are in the same line of work and don’t even get the benefit of tips. That doesn’t sound very equal to me. A movie states this clearer than I probably could. This movie name is â€Å"Reservoir Dogs.† Rent it some time and you will see what I mean. Steve Buscemi renders this point. (From â€Å"Fargo†, â€Å"Con Air†, â€Å"Big Daddy†, and many others.) There you have my view on who decides what we should or shouldn’t do....

Child Labor In Victorian England Essays - Industrial Revolution

Child Labor In Victorian England Essays - Industrial Revolution Child Labor In Victorian England Child Labor in Victorian England The report described the children as Chained, belted, harnessed like dogsblack, saturated with wet, and more than half-naked, crawling upon their hands and knees, and dragging their heavy loads behind them (Yancey 34). This quote from Ivor Brown probably best describes the strenuous work preformed by a child laborer during the Victorian Era. Child laborers played an important part in developing the countrys economy. Children, one of the main sources of labor in Victorian England, endured less than adequate living and working conditions. During the Victorian Period children were good sources of labor. Beginning work as young as six or seven employers saw many benefits to hiring children (Yancey 33). Adolescents were a significant part of the labor force because they could be paid lower wages (Cody). Also their naturally small and nimble hands and bodies were easily maneuverable. Employers most often hired children over adults because kids were powerless and would not revolt (Yancey 33). Economic conditions forced poor children into working, sometimes as hard and long as their parents (Cody). Essential to the economy, Parliament supported child labor saying a child was more useful to his family working (Altick 249). Child laborers led very hard and grossly disgusting lives of filth. Generally the living quarters of laborers were poorly built, rotting, even falling down, with little ventilation. There was no indoor plumbing causing people to throw human waste on unpaved streets. Houses were often crowded and rented by the room or even by the corner. Dirty floors and leaky roofs did not stop people from living in over crowded basements and attics (McMurtry 159). The majority of the day of young workers was spent without their family. The factory system split up families for as much as fourteen hours. The time they did have together was either spent eating or sleeping. Young daughters developed no housewife skills because they were working and their working mother was not there to care for and teach them. The role or father was decreased since he was not the sole supporter of the family (Harrison 74). The life of a child laborer was much like this; thus they learned little about life (Harrison 74). Despite its major importance education played a very small role in the lives of children. In the Victorian Era there was a refined belief that education was not needed (Altick 249). Few working kids had more then two or three years of schooling (Altick 250). In 1840 only twenty percent of the youth population had any schooling at all (Cody). Then in 1870 the Education Act was passed stating that all children, ages five through ten, must attend school. Yet, it was not until 1881before the act became nation wide (Child Labor). Many children tried to avoid school mainly because of the hot, noisy, odorous, and unsanitary classroom environment. School buildings were inadequate along with schoolteachers. Most of the teachers were not properly trained and were usually failures in life. Children often picked work over school due to the fact that working earned them money while school earned them nothing (Altick 250). There were many different indoor jobs a child laborer could have during the Victorian Period. Two of the most commonly heard of jobs included servants and sweatshop workers. Boys and girls became household servants around ten or twelve. They would help around the house doing all sorts of different activities and odd jobs. Children were required to follow many rules around the family since they were of the lower class. Younger servants could not even be seen, heard, or around the family or their friends (McMurtry 169). Sweatshops were very small makeshift factories, usually ran by poor immigrants. The daily conditions of the shops were dirty, cramped, and unventilated. Fire was a serious threat because escape routes were usually narrow stairs that were hard to climb. Though most shops were illegal, Parliament did not stop them since the economys stability relied on their operation (Yancey 28). Two of the most popular jobs during the era involved outdoor work; they were chimney sweeping and mining. One of the most brutal forms of child labor was chimney sweeping. Many young boys would apprentice with masters to be

Mexican-American War - Aftermath

Mexican-American War - Aftermath Previous Page | Contents Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo In 1847, with the conflict still raging, Secretary of State James Buchanan suggested that President James K. Polk send an emissary to Mexico to assist in bringing the war to a close. Agreeing, Polk chose Chief Clerk of the State Department Nicholas Trist and dispatched him south to join General Winfield Scotts army near Veracruz. Initially disliked by Scott, who resented Trists presence, the emissary soon earned the generals trust and the two became close friends. With the army driving inland towards Mexico City and the enemy in retreat, Trist received orders from Washington, DC to negotiate for the acquisition of California and New Mexico to the 32nd Parallel as well as Baja California. Following Scotts capture of Mexico City in September 1847, the Mexicans appointed three commissioners, Luis G. Cuevas, Bernardo Couto, and Miguel Atristain, to meet with Trist to discuss peace terms. Commencing talks, Trists situation was complicated in October when he was recalled by Polk who was unhappy with the representatives  inability to conclude a treaty earlier. Believing that the president did not fully understand the situation in Mexico, Trist elected to ignore the recall order and wrote a 65-page response to Polk outlining his reasons for doing so. Continuing to meet with the Mexican delegation, final terms were agreed to in early 1848. The war officially ended on February 2, 1848, with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The treaty ceded to the United States the land that now comprises the states of California, Utah, and Nevada, as well as parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Wyoming, and Colorado. In exchange for this land, the United States paid Mexico $15,000,000, less than half the amount offered by Washington prior to the conflict. Mexico also forfeited all rights to Texas and the border was permanently established at the Rio Grande. Trist also agreed that the United States would assume $3.25 million in debt owed by the Mexican government to American citizens as well as would work to curtail Apache and Comanche raids into northern Mexico. In an effort to avoid later conflicts, the treaty also stipulated that future disagreements between the two countries would be settled through compulsory arbitration. Sent north, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was delivered to the US Senate for ratification.   After extensive debate and some alterations, the Senate approved it on March 10.   In the course of the debate, an attempt to insert the Wilmot Proviso, which would have banned slavery in the newly-acquired territories, failed 38-15 along sectional lines.   The treaty received ratification from the Mexican government on May 19.   With Mexican acceptance of the treaty, American troops began departing the country. The American victory confirmed most citizens’ belief in Manifest Destiny and the nation’s expansion westward. In 1854, the United States concluded the Gadsden Purchase which added territory in Arizona and New Mexico and reconciled several border issues that had arisen from the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Casualties Like most wars in the 19th century, more soldiers died from disease than from wounds received in battle. In the course of the war, 1,773 Americans were killed in action as opposed to 13,271 dead from sickness. A total of 4,152 were wounded in the conflict. Mexican casualty reports are incomplete, but it estimated that approximately 25,000 were killed or wounded between 1846-1848. Legacy of the War The Mexican War in many ways may be directly connected to the Civil War. Arguments over the expansion of slavery into the newly acquired lands further heightened sectional tensions and forced new states to be added through compromise. In addition, the battlefields of Mexico served as a practical learning ground for those officers who would play prominent roles in the upcoming conflict. Leaders such as Robert E. Lee, Ulysses S. Grant, Braxton Bragg, Thomas â€Å"Stonewall† Jackson, George McClellan, Ambrose Burnside, George G. Meade, and James Longstreet all saw service with either Taylor or Scott’s armies. The experiences these leaders gained in Mexico helped to shape their decisions in the Civil War. Previous Page | Contents

Compare and Analyse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Compare and Analyse - Essay Example This has been caused by a sudden advancement in times and seasons. The times when general technology as well and information technology was left for the media alone, no longer exist (Wherle, 2009, pg76). Currently, almost everyone in the world is an IT expert since people have the idea of how to use a technology. However, it should be considered that this is the main aspect of life, that has witnessed a continuous advancement, hence emergence of the term technology development. Documentaries have been made using technology. Bob Dylan’s â€Å"Don’t look back† and Michael’s â€Å"Roger and Me†, are some to the documentaries that portrays a sense of a well used technology (Pennebaker, 1968, pg65). This essay compares the two documentary’s use of technology. Where, apart from the message in the movies, technology has proved a phenomenon to put into considering when watching this movie. First, it is noted here that, the media portrays a gap between message and medium, where Dylan’s’ manager by the name Albert Grossman who is the movie producer airs his client. Many will take this incident as a bad omen, however to him; he literally does it without thinking or rather taking it as a bad omen. Notably, during the cutting and editing of the documentary, it is clear as per the presentations that Grossman’s presence is felt (Eason, 2010, pg26). As much as this might be considered as an artistic job, the truth is that it portrayed a flattering idea at the edge. In this context, it can be noted that the question of centralization became centrally framed; this is evident prior to the presentation of each character. The film is made to be viewed in a very different phenomenon. The sound of observational documentary such as Don’t Look Back is muddy that makes it difficult for a person to differentiate particular person speech and the general uproar. In essence, the quality of the sound in the documentary is wanting since it is difficult to distinguish a

UC application, personal statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

UC application, - Personal Statement Example I believe in a friendly environment and on factors that would ensure my success. The morals that guide a given institution are similar to those taught by a given society. My family teachings and system code of ethics are what guides my decision-making processes My endurance may be traced to my earlier lives where my family encouragement to pursue my career based on personal interest rather than peer influence. The competitive nature of the modern world requires an individual to choose his or her path wisely. The nature in which an individual chooses his educational path will depend on what society has to offer in terms of employment opportunities. Passion drives this choice and my choice was based on the available opportunities and supportive environments created by my family and friends. The level of expectation from this environment drives my success goals. An individual arranges his priorities based on the environment and my aim is to ensure a successful process that would ensure an increase in levels of competitiveness in this complex world. The world becomes complicated when, and individual fails to achieve certain goals. My aim is to remain relevant to my environment and achieve my goals based on their priorities. Moral of an individual is determined by the nature of his or her upbringing. My family background molded me to become a responsible person, who appreciates the surroundings and respects varied opinions. This characteristic has enabled my stay at the school. I believe in a culture as a tool that would enable interactions between people and cultures. Diversity creates a wider opportunity to explore the differences associated with world and immediate society. I utilize diversity as a means of study and as a way of learning the world in a different dimension. This dimension enables my exploration of new opportunities with the goal of creating counter actions plan to overcome challenges that are associated with diversity. My

Nursing Health Care Fair Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Nursing Health Care Fair - Essay Example Owing to such attributes related to such a mission, how does the hospital management ensure attainment of the mission through incorporating both the staff and systems? The second question relates to the Hospital Rehab Project. For over a long duration, patients attending rehab programs have done so against their will leading to engagement of the same practices once these victims get through with the rehab programs. Consequently, emergencies for rehab services may be sought at any period during the day. Stoughton Hospital hours of operations for the rehab are 8.00 am – 4.00 pm on weekdays while on the weekends assumes full closure. How effective, therefore, is the rehab project in ensuring follow-up for rehab victims as well as ensuring dealing with concerns relating to emergencies? Lastly, Stoughton Hospital is accredited as a not for profit institution an indication that the focus of operations aims at delivering clinical services without concern for profits. The current heal thcare system is characterized by rising costs of health services that result from increased costs of labor among other essentials in providing sufficient health care (Kador, J. (2012). How does the hospital management ensure striking a balance between these growing demands as well as the changes within the healthcare sector with the aspect of maintaining the organization as not for profit? A focus on the job and the human resource portal indicate that Mercy Health System serves as an equal employment opportunity provider. Consequently, the organization emphasizes how such achievements are enhanced by focusing on issues related discrimination that may result or attributed to age, sex, race nation origin, as well as color among others. However, more are a times where different organizations present such detailed paper programs only on paper while the situation on the ground where the worker operates states otherwise. That

Process Controller Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Process Controller - Essay Example The most important of these requirements is safety. This is primary, in order to ensure the well being of the people in the plant and for its continued contribution to the economic development. The operating temperatures, pressures, concentrations, etc. should always be within allowable limits. Quality is also an important factor. A plant should be producing the desired amounts and quality of the final product. Moreover, the various types of equipments have constraints inherent to their operation. Such constraints should be satisfied throughout the operation of the plant. The plant must also conform to the market conditions that are the availability of raw materials and the demand of the final products. It should be as economical as possible in its utilisation of raw materials, energy, capital, and human labour, hence, operating at minimum cost and maximum profit, striking a right balance between both to give an optimal performance. Also, various federal and state laws may specify co nstraints on temperature, flow rates of effluents, etc. to be within certain limits, keeping environmental regulations in mind. (Stephanopoulos 3) All these requirements dictate the need for a good design, which is accomplished through proper selection of controllers, plant design parameters, etc. Different controllers have different effects on the response of the controlled process. The type of feedback controller to control the given process hence forms the first step of controller design. The second design question is â€Å"How do we select the best values for the adjustable parameters of the feedback controller chosen?† This is known as the Controller Tuning Problem. Various performance characteristics such as Overshoot, Rise time, Settling time, Decay ratio and frequency of oscillation of the transient could be used as the basic criteria, while designing. The designer must strike a subjective balance between the different

Administration of Oxygen Therapy Research Paper

Administration of Oxygen Therapy - Research Paper Example Apparently, the said personnel have satisfied the required experience needed in the prescription and administration of oxygen therapy. The result of the administration has also been in the limelight. Nathaniel’s (2007) literature provides positive outcomes that come about with the administration of oxygen therapy. The therapeutical infusion of oxygen has provided energy, inner peace, and optimism in reviving the patients’ health. According to Velio’s literature, questionable risks have arisen from the therapy. It appraises various risks and side effects brought about to the patient requiring the emergency administration of oxygen. A final consideration is that the awful side effects of direct gas injection are not due to ozone but rather to oxygen embolization. (Velio, 2002, pg. 175) The administration of the therapy to patients with AIDS-related maladies and the like has also been addressed. According to Edward et al literature (2008), the patients diagnosed wit h AIDS and related malignancies are the ones with the emergency need of the prescription and administration of oxygen therapy among other therapies such as antiretroviral therapies. The quality of their life is also ensured but not 100% responsive due to weakened immunity of the patients. Despite our best current therapies, patients who have AIDS generally have a poor survival. (Edward et al, 2008, pg 706) ii. Qualitative research The qualitative method of research in the prescription and administration of oxygen therapy happens under-scrutinized statistical analysis. To reach subsequent conclusions, the patients needing the emergency are administered with prescribed percentages of oxygen. According to Ann et al, (2006), a number of patients were prescribed oxygen at a specific duration of time as follows 254 patients were prescribed oxygen

Annie Hall movie Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Annie Hall movie - Essay Example While the film presents some beautiful and tender moments between the couple, these are set against a contextual backdrop that suggests a breakup. The film commences on a nostalgic note, where Alvy is thinking about his relationship with Annie, the relationship that almost was. He muses, â€Å"I keep sifting through the pieces of the relationship through my mind, and examining my life and trying to figure out where did the screw up come?† (Annie Hall). Yet, this nostalgia is also intertwined with an underlying element of cynicism, because we know at the outset what the outcome of the relationship was – it ended in a break-up. Revealing the outcome at the very beginning of the film helps to set the foreground of the narrative and direct the conception of the audience towards the meaning of the film. It sets up the central question to be addressed in the film – why did the relationship between Annie and Alvy end? The nostalgic question posed by Alvy at the very beg inning of the film is followed by a stand up comedy routine, adopting an ironic, self reflexive tone that successfully reflects a combination of nostalgia and cynicism. One of the means employed in the film to distinguish the relationship of Alvy and Annie from the rest of the events occurring in the film is through the use of contrasts. An associative, metaphorical sequencing through stand up comedy segments is used at the beginning of the film, whereas a conventional, sequential narrative structure is used for the scenes dealing with Annie and Alvy’s meeting and courtship.

Administration of Oxygen Therapy Research Paper

Administration of Oxygen Therapy - Research Paper Example Apparently, the said personnel have satisfied the required experience needed in the prescription and administration of oxygen therapy. The result of the administration has also been in the limelight. Nathaniel’s (2007) literature provides positive outcomes that come about with the administration of oxygen therapy. The therapeutical infusion of oxygen has provided energy, inner peace, and optimism in reviving the patients’ health. According to Velio’s literature, questionable risks have arisen from the therapy. It appraises various risks and side effects brought about to the patient requiring the emergency administration of oxygen. A final consideration is that the awful side effects of direct gas injection are not due to ozone but rather to oxygen embolization. (Velio, 2002, pg. 175) The administration of the therapy to patients with AIDS-related maladies and the like has also been addressed. According to Edward et al literature (2008), the patients diagnosed wit h AIDS and related malignancies are the ones with the emergency need of the prescription and administration of oxygen therapy among other therapies such as antiretroviral therapies. The quality of their life is also ensured but not 100% responsive due to weakened immunity of the patients. Despite our best current therapies, patients who have AIDS generally have a poor survival. (Edward et al, 2008, pg 706) ii. Qualitative research The qualitative method of research in the prescription and administration of oxygen therapy happens under-scrutinized statistical analysis. To reach subsequent conclusions, the patients needing the emergency are administered with prescribed percentages of oxygen. According to Ann et al, (2006), a number of patients were prescribed oxygen at a specific duration of time as follows 254 patients were prescribed oxygen

The issue of tragedy Essay Example for Free

The issue of tragedy Essay The term, tragedy, by dictionary definition, can be defined as A story with a sad or unhappy ending. (Arthur Miller, Tragedy and the Common Man). Although there is some truth to this, the true definition of tragedy goes much deeper. The notion of tragedy has been a part of English literature since the beginning of the Classical times. Tragedy is available in almost all literary forms, such as, novels, play wrights, film, etc. Shakespeare, for example, has written numerous world renowned tragedies since the turn of the seventeenth century. Four centuries later, with all the changes to the world of literature, tragedy continues to prevail, as a popular form of literature. Through comparing and contrasting William Shakespeares, Hamlet, with Arthur Millers, Death of a Salesman, it is clear that tragedy continues to have many of the same features as it did so long ago and it continues to appeal to audiences today. This is demonstrated through the tragic hero, the heros tragic flaw, and the catharsis. With these three elements included, a more exact definition of tragedy is defined by Aristotle as, the imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude, in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the playthrough pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions. (Aristotle, The Poetics). Although each and every tragedy is slightly different or even quite dissimilar, every true tragedy includes the presence of a tragic hero. The tragic hero can be defined as man as both beautiful and terrible (Class notes, Tragedy and The Tragic Hero). It is most often the heros unjustified life which turns his story into a tragedy. The tragic hero has been a critical role since the beginning of tragedies and it continues to be today. However, views of how the hero should rank in society, have changed over time. According to Aristotle, it is thought that the heros position in society is to be much above the average man. Aristotle defines the hero to be a character of noble stature and has greatness. (Aristotle, Aristotles Idea of Tragedy). This can be seen in Shakespearean time, through such plays as, Hamlet. Hamlets noble stature comes from his position as a prince; he is the son of  the late king and nephew to the new king. Hamlets strong loyalty and dedication to his family has been interpreted as his greatness by many critics. This can be seen as Hamlet learns the truth about his fathers death, and his father asks him to seek revenge on his uncle, the new king, Haste me to knowt, that I, with wings as swift As meditation or the thoughts of love, May sweep to my revenge. (Shakespeare, Hamlet, III, v, 23-24). Hamlet reveals that he will do whatever it takes to seek revenge upon his uncle and is not worried about the consequences. With this quote, It becomes obvious that Hamlet is in fact the tragic hero of the play. Although it is partly the consistency of tragic heroism that attracts viewers to tragedy today, the status of the tragic hero has been viewed differently by great philosophers today, than it was hundreds of years ago. Arthur Miller, for example, believes that the common man is as apt a subject for tragedy in its highest sense as kings were. (Arthur Miller, Tragedy and the Common Man). The tragic hero, Willy Loman, in Arthur Millers, Death of a Salesman , unquestionably conforms to this description. Willy Loman is a common man, which is evident through his family life, his career as a salesman, and his position in society. Viewers can easily identify with him, which further classifies him as a tragic hero. Although Willy is a common man, he still has some greatness. His greatness lies in his struggle to claim some shred of dignity. He fights back against a system that is bigger than he is, that destroys little men like him. He demonstrates an ability for self sacrifice. (Class notes, Death of a Salesman- Is it a Tragedy). This is demonstrated through Willys discussion with Howard about getting further ahead in his business, You cant eat the orange and throw  the peel away-a man is not a piece of fruit. (Arthur Miller, Death of a Salesman, pg. 84). Willy is attempting to justify his position in society and fight back against the system, which he inevitably fails miserably at doing. By comparing Shakespeares Hamlet with Willy Loman in Arthur Millers, Death of a Salesman, it is evident that the tragic hero is a key element to every tragedy. Although their positions in society are slightly different they  both posses qualities of greatness and will eventually be doomed by these qualities. A tragedy would not be a true tragedy without the presence of the tragic hero, which is why audiences are still attracted to tragedies after hundreds of years. Although the tragic hero is acclaimed to be deemed with the qualities of greatness, the tragic hero is certainly not perfect. In fact, this strong imperfection is know as the heros tragic flaw. The heros tragic flaw is what distinguishes him from any other character. This can be seen in both Death of a Salesman and Hamlet. It may be exactly this unique tragic flaw which continually attracts audiences to tragedies today. The heros tragic flaw is unique to each character and it is what makes him/her a true tragic hero. In Shakespeares, Hamlet, Hamlets tragic flaw comes from his boundless loyalty to his family. It is because he strives to follow his fathers orders to the absolute fullest that he eventually causes his own demise. Hamlet is overly passionate, indecisive, excessively intellectual, and overly infantile. He has never grown up. Hamlet suffers from oedipus complex and cannot accept the reality that he has a mother with sexual needs. It is his tragic flaw which make Hamlet bound for destruction. This becomes evident to the audience when Hamlet is in his mothers room and hears a scream, without looking he assumes it is the voice of Claudius, How now, a rat? Dead for a ducat, dead. [Makes a pass through the arras, Polonius falls and dies]. (Hamlet, III, iv, 72) This is Hamlets character flaw, he doesnt think before he acts, he simply wants to follow his fathers commands to the fullest and so he acts with excessive passion. The tragic hero always has the potential to excel in his greatness but he/she inevitably succumbs to his/her weaknesses/tragic flaw. (Class notes, Tragedy and the Tragic Hero). The tragic hero, Hamlet, is very different from Death of a Salesmans tragic hero, Willy Loman, yet the tradition of the tragic flaw continues. Willy Lomans tragic flaw differs dramatically from Hamlet, yet audiences are still attracted to the tragic flaw today as much as they were in Shakespearean time. In Arthur Millers, Death of a Salesman, Willy Lomans tragic flaw comes from the unnecessary, immense importance he puts upon success, class, and respect through the eyes of society. Willy becomes  obsessed with obtaining a high position in society that it becomes his only reason for living. It is his tragic flaw which eventually leads him to his own death. As Arthur Miller comments, the tragic feeling is evoked in us when we are in the presence of a character who is ready to lay down his life if need be, to secure one thing- his sense of personal dignity. (Arthur Miller, Tragedy and The Common Man). This describes Willy Loman exactly. The feeling of pity is evoked in viewers because Willys tragic flaw is so easy to identify with. Willys flaw has good intentions, for he wants Biff to follow in his footsteps and benefit from his values, but Willys true flaw is his blindness to see that his obsession with these values is causing his own demise. This is demonstrated when Willy gives his two sons advice about getting ahead in the world the man who makes an appearance in the business world, the man who creates a personal interest, is the man who gets ahead. Be liked and you will never want. (Miller, Death of a Salesman, Pg 33) Obtaining a high position in society and being respected in the business world are what Willy feels are the most important aspects of life. As Bradley writes, [The tragic hero] need not be good, but should have so much of greatness that in his error and fall we are vividly conscious of the possibilities of human nature. (Class notes, Tragedy and The Tragic Hero). The feeling evoked is that if waste. Both Hamlet and Willy had great possibilities in life but the blindness of their tragic fall caused them to waste their chances and waste their life. This expected tragic feeling has remained constant over time and is what continues to appeal to audiences time and time again. Tragedies are literary works which are continually filled with suffering, destruction, and most often death. However, through this suffering, the tragic concept is that man endures and gains through suffering. (Class notes, Tragedy and the Tragic Hero) The destruction in each tragedy is never meaningless, it has significant relevance. Although, emotions are aroused, tragedy does not leave viewers feeling depressed. The goal of a tragedy is to leave viewers in a state of catharsis. The word catharsis implies that tragedy purges, removes, or unclogs negative emotions, such as pity and fear that build up within the human spirit. (Some thoughts About Tragedy, both  literary and mundane) Tragedy cleanses, purifies, and thus rids viewers of negative emotions, such as, anger, pity, and fear, and turns them into something good. Viewers endure the tragedy but then gain through suffering by purifying their unhealthy emotions into something healthy. Catharsism is evident in both Hamlet and Death of a Salesman and it continues to attract viewers to tragedies today, as it did hundreds of years ago. At the end of Hamlet, viewers are left with a very negative scene of blood, and many meaningless deaths. As depressing as it may seem, it is not meant to leave the audience feeling depressed. The audience is left with a feeling of cleansing, ridding any feelings of revenge. Viewers accept a feeling of a new beginning, due to the prior line of madness being destructed. Hamlet displays a portion of this optimism just before his death, Give me the cup. Let go. By heaven, Ill havet. O God, Horatio, what a wounded name, Things standing thus unknown, shall live behind me! If thou didst ever hold me in thy heart, Absent thee from felicity awhile, And in this harsh world draw thy breath in pain To tell my story (Hamlet, v, ii, 120). Although Hamlet is dying, he asks for his story to be told so others can benefit from the story of his life. It turns a depressing notion into something optimistic. Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman follows this same trait. Without personally reading or viewing, Death of a Salesman, one might think that Willy Loman taking his own life is a very depressing notion. However, like Hamlet, Death of a Salesman leaves the audience with the feeling of a catharsis when Willys life tragically ends. Audiences can easily relate to Willy Loman in his time of despair, as he fails again and again to obtain recognition from society. It is his entire reason for living until he eventually gives up and lays down his life in order for Biff to benefit. The tragedy allows the audience to purge themselves of feelings of pity and fear due to the strong connection with Willys character. Happy realizes what Willy has done for Biff and as he stands at his fathers funeral, Happy defends Willy by saying Im gonna show you and everybody else that Willy Loman did not die in vain. He had a good dream. Its the only dream you can have-to come out number-one man. He fought it out here, and this is where Im gonna win it for him. (Miller, Death of a  Salesman, Pg. 138-139). The audience realizes that Willy has almost turned his own defeat into a triumph, which replaces any negative emotions, with positive ones. There is no doubt that in every tragedy, there is endless suffering and destruction, however it is ones recognition with these feelings which allows the audience to cleanse themselves of these emotions and gain through the suffering. These qualities have been a large component of tragedy since tragedy began and continue to attract and appeal to audiences today. Tragedies are often extremely varied and each one is slightly different. The content of tragedies can be extremely diverse and often have nothing in common with any other tragedy. However, there are a few components which must be present in every true tragedy. Three important aspects which are contained in every true tragedy is the tragic hero, the heros tragic flaw, and the catharsis. This becomes evident through comparing and contrasting William Shakespeares, Hamlet, with Arthur Millers, Death of a Salesman. It is these features which allow tragedy to appeal to audiences today, just as much as they did hundreds of years ago. Tragedies have been popular for centuries and they will continue to be popular for centuries to come.

Focuses of school based instructional supervision

Focuses of school based instructional supervision A further sub-problem in the study was to explore participants perceptions about the focuses of school-based instructional supervision. This section reports the findings regarding the focuses of school-based instructional supervision based on questionnaire and interview data. Questionnaire Findings Twenty-two statements describing the focuses of instructional supervision were listed in each questionnaire instrument (Appendices A and B). The statements addressed the following major aspects regarding instructional supervision focuses: (a) organization of lessons, (b) subject matter, (c) pupils academic development, (d) school curriculum, (e) lesson plan, (f) pupils individual inquiry, (g) teaching guides, (h) course objectives, (i) teachers personality, (j) pupils character development, (k) pupils progress records, (k) records of work covered, (1) teachers dress and appearance, (m) pupils sense of responsibility, (n) instructional course, (o) teachers questioning style, (p) classroom management, (q) extracurricular activities, (r) pupils performance in national examinations, (s) teacher self-evaluation, and (t) teacher-pupil relationship. For details about specific statements regarding supervision focuses, see Appendixes A and B. The respondents were requested to indicate their existing and preferred extent of examination of each aspect by making choices from given alternatives ranging from 1 (never examined) to 5 (very frequently examined). The percentage and frequency distributions as well as mean scores and standard deviations were determined for each of the focuses. The findings on teachers perceptions of the focuses of school-based instructional supervision are presented in this section in terms of existing and preferred frequency of examination of the focuses. I have included only the focuses that ranked highest and lowest in terms of frequency of examination as perceived by teachers. Teachers perceptions of the frequency of examination of existing and preferred focuses of school-based instructional supervision were explored (Appendix D, Table 3.1). The focuses have been ranked from highest to lowest frequency of examination based on mean responses for existing and preferred focuses of school-based instructional supervision (see Table 3.2). The data collected suggest that availability of properly organized pupils progress records ranked first in terms of existing frequency of examination, teachers concern with pupils performance in national examinations ranked second, and availability of up-to-date weakly record of work covered ranked third (Appendix D, Table 3.2). At the other extreme, three focuses ranked lowest in terms of existing frequency of examination: teachers dress and appearance, teachers use of teaching aids, and the manner in which the teacher asks questions in the class (Appendix D, Table 3.2). In terms of preferred frequency of examination, the focus that ranked first was teachers concern with pupils performance in national examinations, followed by availability of properly organized pupils progress records, and, finally, availability of up-to-date weekly record of work covered (Appendix D, Table 3.2). The focuses that ranked lowest in terms of preferred frequency of examination included preparation of an appropriate lesson plan, the manner in which the teacher asks questions in the class, and teachers dress and appearance (Appendix D, Table 3.2). Based on t-test analyses, there were significant differences at the 0.001 level between teachers perceptions of the frequency of examination of existing and preferred focuses of school-based instructional supervision. In general, teachers preferred that the focuses of school-based instructional supervision presented in this study be examined more frequently than was currently being done. Interview Findings Interviews with teachers, headteachers, and education officers indicated five major themes relative to focuses of school-based instructional supervision: (a) curriculum and instruction, (b) student success, (c) teacher performance, (d) teachers artifacts of teaching, and (e) human relations. Curriculum and Instruction Three headteachers cited three focuses of instructional supervision that are primarily concerned with curriculum and instruction: (a) teachers attendance to scheduled lessons, (b) teachers participation in extracurricular activities, and (c) syllabus coverage by the teacher. One teacher, in a general remark, stated as follows: I think it is important to check on attendance of teachers to their scheduled lessons or to their participation in extracurricular activities with pupils. Headteachers should also make sure that teachers cover the syllabuses in good time to prepare students for external exams. Student Success Two teachers agreed that instructional supervisors should endeavor to find out how teachers assess their pupils work. They argued that the various strategies that teachers use to assess students progress will determine how students are prepared for national examinations. As one teacher remarked, It would be helpful to know teachers assess their pupils academic work because this is important for students success in the national examinations. Teacher Performance Another area regarding the focuses of school-based instructional supervision cited by four interviewees was concerned with teacher performance in the classroom. These participants agreed that, to facilitate teaching and learning, the teachers level of preparedness and general effectiveness in teaching should be the major focuses of the supervision of instruction. As one education officer commented, The best thing to do is for supervisors to address areas like effectiveness of their classroom teachers and how they are prepared to teach. Teachers Artifacts of Teaching One headteacher observed that teachers teaching artifacts, such as examination and test papers, should be addressed during supervision process. This headteacher remarked, Instructional supervisors should check the quality of examination and test papers set by teachers because these are important teaching tools that would shape students success in the final examinations. Do they set high quality papers which can promote learning? Human Relations A final area relating to focuses of instructional supervision mentioned by some interviewees was concerned with human relations. One education officer noted that how teachers interact with students should be considered in the practices of instructional supervision and that the teacher-pupil relationship should be a major focus of instructional supervision. Another education officer commented, When you are supervising a teacher, for example in the classroom, you must look at how the teacher interacts with pupils. This interaction is important because it will affect learning. In general, the focuses of school-based instructional supervision cited by interviewees concur with high-ranking focuses relative to the existing and preferred extent of examination by the teacher from the questionnaire data. Synthesis and Discussion of School-based instructional supervision Focuses The findings relating to teachers perceptions of existing and preferred frequency of examination of the focuses of school-based instructional supervision revealed by questionnaire data indicate that three focuses received the highest ranking in both existing and preferred frequency of examination: (a) availability of properly organized pupils progress records, (b) availability of up-to-date weekly record of work covered, and (c) teachers concern with pupils performance in national examinations. Similarly, one focus-the manner in which the teacher asks questions in the class-received the lowest ranking in both existing and preferred frequency of examination as perceived by teachers. The findings from the interview data revealed the following focuses of school-based instructional supervision: (a) teachers attendance to scheduled classes, (b) teachers preparedness, (e) teachers methods of assessment of pupils academic progress, (f) quality of test papers set by the teacher, (g) syllabus coverage by the teacher, (h) teachers participation in extracurricular activities, and (i) teacher-pupil relationship. Indicators of Teacher Preparation The three focuses of school-based instructional supervision that received the highest ranking in terms of existing and preferred frequency of examination by the headteacher- availability of properly organized pupils records, availability of up-to-date records of work covered, and teachers concern with pupils performance in national examinations-were particularly interesting because, in Saudi Arabia, the three focuses are among the indicators of teachers preparedness for effective teaching that the Ministry of Education expects headteachers to ensure. As explained by Saudi Arabian Ministry of Education (1998) headteachers, as managers of approved school curriculum, are expected to ensure that teachers prepare comprehensive tools of work, such as lesson plans and weekly records of work done, and check periodically pupils exercise books, practical work, assignments, and continuous assessment to ensure regular marking and systematic use in guiding learners. Teachers Concern with Pupils Performance Teachers concern with pupils performance in national examinations is an important aspect of Saudi Arabias education system, which seems to put a great deal of emphasis on passing of examinations. As Babtain (2004) noted, the overloaded system of education imposes cut-throat competition among schools, where learners are pushed to cut down others in national examinations, and forces teachers to be busy all year round as they struggle to complete the curriculum. To facilitate students success in national examinations, as noted by Ibrahim (2000), teachers are expected to develop and transmit desired knowledge, skills, and attitudes to pupils, it is hoped, through instructional supervision. Teachers Attendance to Scheduled Classes Teachers attendance to scheduled lessons is an important focus in school-based instructional supervision because it facilitates curriculum implementation. Highlighting the role of the school head as a manager of the school, Hassan (1998) observed that the headteacher should ensure regular teaching of subjects to implement the school curriculum effectively. Teacher attendance to scheduled lessons is a major issue in the Saudi Arabian education system because numerous cases of student unrest in the recent past have been attributed to teachers failure to attend scheduled lessons. For example, Mahmoud (2004), commenting about student protest in one school cited lessons missing as one of the reasons for the student strike that paralyzed the school and led to its closure. Similarly, Attari (2005) cited teachers boycott of scheduled classes as a major reason for the indefinite closure of the school and the temporary removal of students from the school. Teachers attendance to scheduled classes is linked to six other related focuses of school-based instructional supervision revealed by the interview data: (a) teachers presence in the school, (b) teachers effectiveness in the classroom, (c) teachers level of preparedness, (d) teachers methods of assessment of pupils academic progress, (e) quality of test papers set by the teacher, and (f) syllabus coverage by the teacher, because they are all concerned with facilitating effective and quality curriculum implementation in the school. In the Saudi Arabian context, as explained in the Education Act (Saudi Arabia, 1980), curriculum means all the subjects taught and all the activities provided at school, and may include the time devoted to each subject and activity (p. 4), and syllabus means a concise statement of the contents of a course of instruction in a subject or subjects (p. 5). To facilitate curriculum implementation, in particular, Saudi Arabia Ministry of Education (1998) has unde rscored the role of the headteacher in supervising the school curriculum to ensure effective teaching and learning. And Mohammed (2002) has concluded that the quality of curriculum implementation and management may determine student performance in external and school-based examinations. Practices of School-based instructional supervision A further sub-problem in the study was concerned with the perceptions of participants regarding the practices of school-based instructional supervision. This section reports the findings relating to the practices of school-based instructional supervision based on questionnaire and interview data. Sixteen statements describing the practices of school-based instructional supervision as conducted by headteachers were listed in each teacher instrument (Appendices A and B). The statements covered the following major aspects relating to the practices of instructional supervision: (a) conducting teaching, (b) evaluating teachers work, (c) providing information about supervisory process, (d) reducing teachers anxieties regarding supervisory program, (e) collecting information about teachers, (f) pre-observation conferencing, (g) using examination results to indicate teacher performance, (h) interviewing students about teacher performance, (i) conferencing with teachers about classroom practice, (j) encouraging self-evaluation, (k) improving instructional quality, (1) writing supervisory reports, (m) providing supervisory feedback, (n) post-observation conferencing, (o) identifying areas of instructional improvement, and (p) rewarding deserving teachers. For details regarding specific statements about the practices of instructional supervision, see Appendices A and B. The respondents were requested to indicate their preferences for existing and preferred importance given to each practice by making choices from given alternatives ranging from 1 (no importance) to 5 (great). The percentage and frequency distributions, means, and standard deviations were determined for each practice. The data obtained from teachers, headteachers, and education officers relative to the practices of school-based instructional supervision are reported in Appendix D, Tables 4.1 and 4.2. This section reports the findings relating to teachers perceptions regarding the practices of school-based instructional supervision in terms of the importance they attach to the practices. Only the practices that received the highest and lowest rankings as perceived by teachers have been reported. Teachers responses relative to existing and preferred importance of practices of school-based instructional supervision were explored, as were comparisons between the existing and the preferred means and standard deviations of the practices of school-based instructional supervision as perceived by teachers (Appendix D, Tables 4.1). The practices have been ranked from highest to lowest based on the mean responses relating to existing and preferred practices (Appendix D, Table 4.2). Encouraging teachers to evaluate their own teaching (i.e., self-evaluation; n=256) ranked first in order of importance as existing practice, followed by using examination/test results as indicators of teacher performance (n=254; see Appendix D, Table 4.2). Setting up specific sessions with teachers to discuss how teaching should be conducted (n=256) and recognizing and rewarding excellent teachers (n=256) formed a cluster in third position in order of importance as existing practices. At the other end, the practices that received the lowest ranks as existing practices included (a) writing supervisory reports for different audiences (n=250), (b) conducting conferences soon after observing teachers (n=248), and (c) meeting with teachers prior to classroom observation (n=250; see Appendix D, Table 4.2). Regarding preferred practices, recognizing and rewarding excellent teachers (n=256) ranked first in order of importance, encouraging teachers to evaluate their own teaching (i.e., self-evaluation; n=256) ranked second, and providing teachers with an adequate amount of information to become familiar with the supervisory process (n=256) ranked third (Appendix D, Table 4.2). The least preferred practices in order of importance were (a) meeting with teachers prior to classroom observation (n=250), (b) writing different supervisory reports for different audiences, and (c) obtaining information from students about their teachers performance through face-to-face interview (n=252; see Appendix D, Table 4.2). Based on t-test analyses, there were significant differences at both the 0.05 and 0.001 levels between teachers perceptions of existing and preferred practices of school-based instructional supervision, except for one practice, holding face to-face interviews with teachers to obtain information about their classroom practice. In general, teachers preferred that more importance be attached to practices of school-based instructional supervision listed in the instrument than was currently the case. Interview Findings Teachers, headteachers, and education officers interviewed cited the following practices of school-based instructional supervision that they had experienced: (a) checking teachers professional tools of work or artifacts of teaching, such as schemes of work, records of work covered, lesson notes, lesson plans, lesson-focus books, mark books, daily preparation books, and part test papers; (b) examining students exercise books; (c) using students to obtain information about teachers; (d) holding conferences with teachers; (e) observing teachers in their classrooms; and (f) supervision by walking around. Frequency distributions of teachers, headteachers, and education officers regarding their mention of practices of school-based instructional supervision were also synthesized from the interview data (Appendix D, Table 4.3). Eleven teachers, four headteachers/deputy headteachers, and three education officers interviewed mentioned checking teachers tools of work or artifacts of teaching, especially schemes of work and records of work covered, as an important practice of school-based instructional supervision in the schools (Appendix D, Table 4.3). Also, six teachers, three headteachers/deputy headteachers, and two education officers agreed that holding conferences with teachers was one of the practices of school-based instructional supervision. Furthermore, two teachers, three headteachers/deputy headteachers, and two education officers identified observing teachers in their classrooms as one of the practices of school-based instructional supervision. However, a few teachers and headteachers interviewed reported that classroom observation, in particular, was not a common practice in their schools. As one headteacher commented: Visiting teachers in their classrooms to see how they teach is very difficult in our situation. And most teachers resent it so much, and personally I dont think I have done it. I dont think it is a practice. You know how it can be taken. In most cases, those who have attempted it have met with a lot of negativity. It is like you want to find faults from the teacher. Teachers fear it most. Three teacher interviewees concurred that there were no supervisory reports on teachers written by headteachers, to the best of their knowledge. As one teacher remarked, Once teachers have been supervised by the headteacher by whatever means, no supervisory reports are made, not at the school level. Maybe the headteacher would have his or her own reports. The interviewees also gave least emphasis to practices such as examination of students exercise books and using student leaders, commonly referred to as prefects, to obtain information about teachers. As one education officer stated, But I dont think we need children to write anything about teachers for us to know whether or not teachers are on duty. Synthesis and Discussion of Practices of School-based instructional supervision The findings regarding the practices of school-based instructional supervision based on the questionnaire data revealed that recognizing and rewarding excellent teachers was ranked highest by teachers as existing and preferred supervisory practice, whereas writing different supervisory reports for different audiences received low ranking as existing and preferred practice. The interview findings revealed six major practices of school-based instructional supervision: (a) checking teachers artifacts of teaching, (b) examining students exercise books, (c) using students to obtain information about teachers, (d) holding conferences with teachers, and (e) observing teachers in their classrooms. Recognizing and Rewarding Deserving Teachers That recognizing and rewarding excellent teachers ranked highest is noteworthy because it seems to be a viable strategy for motivating teachers, especially when the recognition is initiated by the headteacher as an instructional leader. This finding supports Sergiovannis (2001) belief that one of the school principals responsibilities is to build and to nurture motivation and commitment to teaching and that when teaching is rewarding professionally, teachers are likely to keep improving their effectiveness. The importance of recognizing and rewarding teachers has also been supported elsewhere. For example, Hallinger and Murphy (1985) observed that setting up a work structure that rewards and recognizes teachers for their efforts was an important part of the principals role in creating a positive learning climate. In the Saudi Arabian context, as explained by Saudi Arabia Ministry of Education (1998), the headteachers proper management, especially in recognizing excellent performance, may facilitate high morale, motivation, integrity, and appropriate work ethics. Artifacts of Teaching The practices of school-based instructional supervision revealed by the interview data were also observed. For example, checking teachers artifacts of teaching or tools of work is important in Saudi Arabian schooling because it is concerned with teachers preparedness to teach classes. Whereas the Ministry of Education (1987) expects classroom teachers to prepare artifacts of teaching, it is the responsibility of the headteacher and heads of departments, especially, to ensure that such items are actually prepared appropriately and to check their relevance to the intended subjects. Furthermore, as the Ministry of Education explained, heads of departments, in particular, are responsible for maintaining a record of work of the subjects to be completed weekly by all subject heads. Questionnaire and Interview Findings Compared A comparison of questionnaire and interview findings regarding the practices of school-based instructional supervision revealed some interesting similarities. For example, the practice that ranked lowest in both existing and preferred extent of examination as perceived by teachers-writing different supervisory reports for different audiences-was also viewed by some interviewees as being nonexistent Also, the practice of obtaining information from students about their teachers performance through face-to-face interviews, which received relatively low ranking in both existing and preferred extent of examination as perceived by teachers, was also considered inappropriate by some teachers and education officers interviewed. I can speculate that this practice was perhaps common especially in schools where feedback from students regarding teacher performance was productive. However, several views in the literature supported the involvement of students in evaluation of teachers. For example, Stronge and Ostrander (1997) argued that, because students are the primary consumers of teachers services and have direct knowledge about classroom practices on a regular basis, they are in a key position to provide information about teacher effectiveness. Whereas the questionnaire data indicated that meeting with teachers especially prior to classroom observation ranked lowest in order of importance as existing and preferred practice as perceived by teachers, the interview data indicated that holding conferences with teachers was prevalent in schools. I can speculate that conferencing with teachers was not a popular practice in many schools.

Oppositional World Views: Plato & The Sophists Essay -- essays researc

The Sophist views and beliefs originated in Ancient Greece around 400 B.C.E. The Sophists were known as wandering rhetoricians who gave speeches to those who could afford to listen. The Sophists deeply believed in the power of rhetoric and how it could improve one’s life. Plato on the other hand was opposed to all Sophist beliefs. He viewed the Sophists as rhetorical manipulators who were only interested in how people could be persuaded that they learned the truth, regardless if it was in fact the truth. Plato basically opposed every view the Sophists held true and tried to disprove them throughout his many dialogues. The Sophists and Plato held two very contrasting views and this paper will attempt to sift through them all in hopes of illustrating each one. This paper will first focus on each group. It will begin by identifying both the Sophists and Plato and then citing the significant principles associated with each world view. This paper will then focus on how each compon ent of their world views relate specifically to rhetoric. Finally, this paper will focus on illustrating each world view by way of current newspaper editorial.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As noted, the Sophists were rooted in ancient Greece but traveled to many places, giving speeches on rhetoric to those who could afford to listen. Within their teachings, the Sophists focused on rhetorical techniques and how they could be used to successfully argue any side of an argument. They harped on the idea that through their teachings, self improvement could be achieved because those who controlled language had the power. The Sophists were relativists, which means they believed that an individual or society’s beliefs, while true for that particular individual or society, might be untrue for others. (Bizzell P. & Herzberg, B., 2001, pg. 6) The Sophists referred to this as kairos and said that because of it, there could be no absolute truth because the truth was dependent on that particular person’s point of view. They believed that the only knowledge that humans could achieve is knowledge that is probable because absolute knowledge is unattaina ble. The Sophists feel that this probable knowledge can be boiled down through what they refer to as dissoi logoi. This technique, in which each opposing side of an argument is examined in order to identify the probable truth, was developed by Protago... ..., this would be dusting away the debris (the myths) and uncovering the absolute truth of what really happened. Through rhetoric, probable truths such as McDonalds had to pay three million, are cleared out and absolute truths, McDonalds had to pay $640,000, are uncovered. (Doroshow, J. pg.1-3) This is exactly how Plato would have had it. To summarize, the Sophists were traveling rhetoricians who were paid to teach people techniques to becoming great arguers and persuaders. They were relativists who believed there was no absolute truth, only probable. This probable truth was discovered through kairos, dependent on a person’s situation, or dissoi logoi, the truth is uncovered by examining opposing arguments. The philosopher Plato was in opposition to virtually every belief the Sophists had. He believed in absolute truth and that rhetoric and discourse should be used to uncover this truth. He also believed that false rhetoric was that of the Sophists. Whether the Sophist view is correct or Plato’s view is, there is some sort of truth out there and maybe one day it can be decided as to which method best uncovered it. But until then, the debate will rage on, as it did within this paper. Oppositional World Views: Plato & The Sophists Essay -- essays researc The Sophist views and beliefs originated in Ancient Greece around 400 B.C.E. The Sophists were known as wandering rhetoricians who gave speeches to those who could afford to listen. The Sophists deeply believed in the power of rhetoric and how it could improve one’s life. Plato on the other hand was opposed to all Sophist beliefs. He viewed the Sophists as rhetorical manipulators who were only interested in how people could be persuaded that they learned the truth, regardless if it was in fact the truth. Plato basically opposed every view the Sophists held true and tried to disprove them throughout his many dialogues. The Sophists and Plato held two very contrasting views and this paper will attempt to sift through them all in hopes of illustrating each one. This paper will first focus on each group. It will begin by identifying both the Sophists and Plato and then citing the significant principles associated with each world view. This paper will then focus on how each compon ent of their world views relate specifically to rhetoric. Finally, this paper will focus on illustrating each world view by way of current newspaper editorial.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As noted, the Sophists were rooted in ancient Greece but traveled to many places, giving speeches on rhetoric to those who could afford to listen. Within their teachings, the Sophists focused on rhetorical techniques and how they could be used to successfully argue any side of an argument. They harped on the idea that through their teachings, self improvement could be achieved because those who controlled language had the power. The Sophists were relativists, which means they believed that an individual or society’s beliefs, while true for that particular individual or society, might be untrue for others. (Bizzell P. & Herzberg, B., 2001, pg. 6) The Sophists referred to this as kairos and said that because of it, there could be no absolute truth because the truth was dependent on that particular person’s point of view. They believed that the only knowledge that humans could achieve is knowledge that is probable because absolute knowledge is unattaina ble. The Sophists feel that this probable knowledge can be boiled down through what they refer to as dissoi logoi. This technique, in which each opposing side of an argument is examined in order to identify the probable truth, was developed by Protago... ..., this would be dusting away the debris (the myths) and uncovering the absolute truth of what really happened. Through rhetoric, probable truths such as McDonalds had to pay three million, are cleared out and absolute truths, McDonalds had to pay $640,000, are uncovered. (Doroshow, J. pg.1-3) This is exactly how Plato would have had it. To summarize, the Sophists were traveling rhetoricians who were paid to teach people techniques to becoming great arguers and persuaders. They were relativists who believed there was no absolute truth, only probable. This probable truth was discovered through kairos, dependent on a person’s situation, or dissoi logoi, the truth is uncovered by examining opposing arguments. The philosopher Plato was in opposition to virtually every belief the Sophists had. He believed in absolute truth and that rhetoric and discourse should be used to uncover this truth. He also believed that false rhetoric was that of the Sophists. Whether the Sophist view is correct or Plato’s view is, there is some sort of truth out there and maybe one day it can be decided as to which method best uncovered it. But until then, the debate will rage on, as it did within this paper.

Should the 22nd Admendment be Repealed Essay -- essays research papers

In the political world today there are so many different opinions about several different topics. The topics that I will address to you will be, should the 22nd Amendment be repealed and also should the foreign born be allowed to run for president. In both topics you may have your pros and cons, but I am strongly against the both of them because I feel that the Constitution should not be taken advantage of. Government should not be allowed to manipulate the Constitution to suit his or her needs. While making adjustments to the Constitution to allow different things to take place for convenience doesn’t leave any form respect of the Constitution. There should be a line drawn to keep this from happening for years to come on these issues and others as well. Some will like for the 22nd amendment to repealed to keep who they like in office, but my feeling towards this is give other the opportunity to make our world a better place. There are more than enough qualified people to mak e a difference for our country no need to stick to one person who eventually will get tired of it anyway. In addition, with the foreign born, this issue came to play all over Schwarzenegger getting backed up by Congress and other governors in California to try to make necessary changes to the Constitution (CNN News, 2004). According to the US Term Limits, the 22nd amendment states, No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of Preside...

Group Dynamics Essay

Work is being restructured around groups of all kinds and in all sizes of organizations. Managers need an understanding of group behavior and the concept of teams in order to appreciate what groups can and cannot do within organizations and how groups function. Any one member in group can influence the behavior of the individuals in the group and teamwork. We will examine some basic characteristics of groups including the types of work groups, the development of informal groups, and the manner in which groups operate. UNDERSTANDING GROUP BEHAVIOR Groups exhibit different behavior—more than just the sum total of each group member’s individual behavior. In this section, we’re going to look at various aspects of group behavior. What is a Group? A group is defined as two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular objectives. 1. Groups differ from mere aggregates of individual because the latter have no interdependence, interaction, or common goal. 2. Groups differ from organizations because the latter involve systematic efforts and are engaged in the production of goods and services. 3. Teamwork occurs when groups are able to work efficiently and effectively together to achieve organizational goals. There are a number of types of work groups 1. A formal group is a group officially planned and created by an organization for a specific purpose. a. A command or functional group is a formal group consisting of a manager and all the subordinates who report to that manager. ) Each identifiable work group consisting of manager and subordinates is a command group. 2) A linking is an individual who provides a means of coordination between command groups at two different levels by fulfilling a supervisory role in the lower-level group and a subordinate role in the higher-level group. 2. Informal groups are natural social formations that appear in the work environment. An informal group is a group that is established by employees, rather than by the organization, in order to serve group members’ interests or social needs. Informal groups are unplanned groups. a. An interest group is an informal group created to facilitate employee pursuits of common concern. b. A friendship group is an informal group that evolves primarily to meet employee social needs. Overview of Group Dynamics Formal and informal work groups are becoming increasingly important competitive factors in organizations. Teamwork is the result of groups working together to effectively and efficiently achieving organizational goals. Formal groups include command and task groups. Informal groups include interest and friendship groups. A useful way to analyze groups is to view them as systems that use inputs, engage in various processes or transformations, and produce outcomes. Managers can help bring about higher performance from formal work groups by weighing the characteristics of members they assign to particular groups. Group members should have task-relevant expertise and appropriate interpersonal skills. Also, it has been found, that a degree of diversity among group members usually adds to performance. Group training, particularly for diverse groups, has been found to be useful. Members may be attracted to a group for a number of reasons including being attracted to or liking other members of the group, liking the activities of the group, the goals or purposes of the group, because the group satisfies an individual’s need for affiliation, and/or because the group can help an individual achieve a goal outside the group. The absence of attraction can prevent the group from achieving high performance. Member roles in groups include group task roles, group maintenance roles, and self performance. Member roles in groups include group task roles, group maintenance roles, and self oriented roles. The size of the group has also been found to have significant bearing on the group’s performance. Mid-sized groups, from five to seven members, seem to be an optimum size according to recent research. Smaller groups can often exacerbate individual differences. Large groups tend to be when working in groups than when working alone. Free riding is particularly likely when members exhibit individualism rather than collectivism. Managers can combat social loafing by several methods. Assign just enough people to do the work is one key method. Other methods include making each individual’s work visible, providing for individual feedback, have people work with those the respect, have standards to actually measure group performance, and making rewards contingent on a combination of individual and group performance. The work group processes usually result in greater or lesser performance than would occur if the individuals worked alone rather than as members of the group. This process is called synergy. Managers strive to have a positive synergy from the group rather than negative. Three key characteristics of the group help determine the synergy levels. These are group norms, group cohesiveness, and group development. Norms are the behaviors of group members that are acceptable to the group. Norms stem from explicit statements by supervisors and coworkers, critical events in a group’s history, primacy, and carryover behaviors. Group cohesiveness has important consequences for group communication, satisfaction, performance, hostility and aggression toward other groups, and a group’s willingness to innovate and change. Factors influencing the amount of cohesiveness in a group include whether or not members of the group share attitudes and values, the amount and severity of external threats to the group, whether or not the group experiences recognizable successes, the degree of difficulty encountered in joining the group, and the size of the group. One view of group development shows groups passing through five distinct stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. A group’s performance varies depending on the stage it is in. A special kind of group behavior is found in group meetings. Because of the considerable amount of time spent in meetings, it is important for managers to know how to maximize group meeting effectiveness. This chapter includes an excellent short guide for how managers can lead more effective group meetings. Groups can also help facilitate creativity and innovation in the organization. Some of the major mechanisms that organizations use to encourage the creative and innovative capacity of groups include the use of task forces, or ad hoc committees, and teams, particularly entrepreneurial and self-managing teams.